Workers assembling official football kits for some of the world's biggest clubs are earning less than £1 an hour in two Cambodian factories, an investigation has found. The production facilities, located on the outskirts of Phnom Penh, manufacture authentic replica shirts for Arsenal, Celtic, Liverpool, Real Madrid and other elite teams, yet employees describe struggling to afford basic living expenses on their meagre wages.
The two factories—Bowker Garment Factory and Trax Apparel—employ approximately 6,600 workers combined, predominantly women, who assemble kits under conditions workers characterised as difficult. Staff reported factory temperatures exceeding 35 degrees Celsius, verbal abuse when production targets were missed, and safety hazards including exposed electrical equipment.
According to payslips reviewed during the investigation, workers at Bowker receive basic monthly salaries of $210–$220 (£158–£166), while Trax reported average monthly earnings of $305–$342 (£230–£258) this year. These figures comply with Cambodia's local minimum-wage requirements, though they fall far short of what workers say they need to cover rent, food and utilities.
The wage situation in Cambodia's garment sector remains precarious. Cambodia set the garment-sector minimum wage for 2027 at $212 a month, effective 1 January 2027—a rise of just $2 from the 2026 rate. Seven trade unions had called for a 2027 minimum wage of $250.66, with union leaders arguing that household expenses exceed $500 a month and workers rely on overtime and extra shifts to meet basic needs.
Why are fans paying so much?
The investigation began after supporters complained about rapidly rising shirt prices. Research published last year showed that of a typical £85 shirt, only £8.50 covers fabric, sewing and shipping, while £37.45 goes to the retailer, £16.25 to the manufacturer, £9.50 on marketing and £13.60 in VAT. The average price of an adult replica Premier League shirt has climbed 50.7% over the past decade, a surge that has driven many fans towards cheaper counterfeit alternatives sold for as little as £12.
Industry experts offer competing explanations for the increases. Advances in technology and expensive kit deals with elite clubs have contributed to higher costs, according to former kit designers.
A lot of the profit margin is made by the retailer because they're so dependent on the success of the team... it's a risk. Then you factor in the cost of the kit deals going up, and the brands having to try to recover some of the money they're paying to the elite clubs.
Yet workers at the factories see the economics differently.
If one shirt sells for $120 (£90) in the store, how much are they pulling in from 600 of them? They make a ton of money but give almost nothing to the workers.
What conditions do workers face on the production line?
Employees at both factories work six eight-hour shifts a week and are expected to meet group production targets of between 300 and 700 items daily. Inside Bowker, a thermometer photographed during the investigation showed 35.2 degrees Celsius with 57.6% humidity.
The heat stress is really taking a toll on our health,said an employee working on the ironing line.
Workers described pressure that extends beyond physical strain.
When we can't complete the quota they scold and yell at us and tell us to resign,said one Bowker employee. Another worker reported receiving two electric shocks from an exposed wire and said management only took action after the second incident.
I tried to report it multiple times, but they only took action after the second time I got shocked,they explained.
One worker at Trax articulated the gap between what shirts sell for and what workers earn:
I want international customers to hear that one shirt they buy costs more than two weeks' salary for a worker. Every one of these shirts contains the sweat of Cambodian workers.
Such concerns are not isolated to these two facilities. A 2024 International Labour Organization report found that 69% of factories across Cambodia's garment industry had issues with heat and 84% had worker protection problems. A 2022 Worker Rights Consortium investigation at Trax Apparel documented alleged violations of Cambodian labour law, international labour standards, and university and brand codes of conduct.
What do the manufacturers and brands say?
Adidas does not own either factory but both are primary suppliers subject to its workplace standards. The sportswear giant supplies eight of the 20 Premier League teams and stated it has implemented measures to ensure fair and safe working conditions across its supply chain for more than 25 years.
Through around 1,200 factory audits per year, we review and evaluate supplier conduct, work with suppliers to address issues and make improvements where necessary.
Adidas claimed that average net wages across a sample of its Cambodian suppliers were 34% above the Anker Research Institute's living-wage benchmark and that staff were usually paid considerably higher than the local minimum wage. The company also said both factories had heat-management measures in place, that its standards do not permit harassment, and that no electrical-related accidents had been found in Bowker's records.
Trax acknowledged periods of elevated temperature and said cooling systems were in place, insisting its approach is not based on enforcing output targets. Bowker did not respond to requests for comment. None of the clubs named in the investigation—Arsenal, Celtic, Liverpool, Real Madrid, Aston Villa or Benfica—responded to requests for comment.
Nike, which supplies three Premier League clubs as well as England, told the investigation that 71% of its key suppliers pay at or above living-wage benchmarks relevant to their location. Its football shirts have been produced in Thailand, Vietnam and more recently Georgia. Hummel, which provides kit to three Premier League sides, did not respond to enquiries.
How does the supply chain work?
Shirt production begins months before designs are revealed to fans. Fabric is imported from Thailand and Vietnam before a specialist tailor at the factory makes a sample for other employees to follow. Much of the shirt-making process then takes place at Bowker and Trax, including sewing, ironing and packaging.
About 3,400 people—most of them women—work at Bowker on the outskirts of Phnom Penh, while another 3,200 work 10 miles east at Trax Apparel. Cambodia's garment, footwear and travel-goods sector employs nearly one million people, mostly women.
The global market for official football teamwear is worth several billion pounds.
The mark-up on football jerseys... it's hard to imagine a more lucrative brand market,said Dave Welsh from a US-based workers' rights organisation.
What happens next?
The new $212 monthly minimum wage for garment, textile, footwear and travel-goods workers takes effect on 1 January 2027. However, union leaders and workers' advocates argue this increase remains insufficient given rising living costs.
Campaign groups are calling for stronger action from clubs and brands.
Respect has got to be a baseline in sport. Clubs need to send a really strong message that they won't put their name on a shirt if workers are not treated with respect.
The Premier League expects clubs to carry out appropriate due diligence on their kit manufacturers and supply chains. Fans have been warned against buying counterfeit shirts, with police noting they can be manufactured without regard for safety standards or workers' rights, and Trading Standards cautioning that counterfeiters operate without ethical constraints.
